Here we have a `User` and a `Post`, both represented in interfaces:

```typescript
interface User {
  id: string;
  name: string;
}

interface Post {
  id: string;
  title: string;
  content: string;
}
```

There is a `db` that represents the shape of the database:

```typescript
const db: { users: User[]; posts: Post[] } = {
  users: [
    {
      id: "1",
      name: "Miles",
    },
  ],
  posts: [
    {
      id: "1",
      title: "Hello world",
      content: "This is my first post",
    },
  ],
};
```

And finally there are functions here that say `getUserById` and `getPostById`:

```typescript
const getUserById = (id: string) => {
  return db.users.find((user) => user.id === id);
};

const getPostById = (id: string) => {
  return db.posts.find((post) => post.id === id);
};
```

## Challenge

These functions need to be restricted so that they only get a user with a `UserId` and a post with a `PostId`.

The branded types have already been written and are used in the tests:

```typescript
type UserId = Brand<string, "UserId">;
type PostId = Brand<string, "PostId">;
```

Your challenge is to work out where these branded types should go and what you need to do with them in order to restrict the functions appropriately.

Branded types can be used to confidently fetch data of a specific type. This is great for working with complicated data structures.

There are a couple of parts to the solution.

## Add Brands to the Getters

We definitely need brands added to `getUserById` and `getPostById` to make sure that the things we're checking are really `UserId` and `PostId`.

Before they were strings:

```typescript
const getUserById = (id: string) => {
  return db.users.find((user) => user.id === id);
};

const getPostById = (id: string) => {
  return db.posts.find((post) => post.id === id);
};
```

Now they are the correct brands:

```typescript
const getUserById = (id: UserId) => {
  return db.users.find((user) => user.id === id);
};

const getPostById = (id: PostId) => {
  return db.posts.find((post) => post.id === id);
};
```

This change means that we can't accidentally pass the wrong thing into the function.

An interesting thing to notes is that inside of these functions we're comparing branded types to non-branded types.

For example, hovering over `user.id` inside of `getUserById` shows us that the branded `User.id` property is a string:

```typescript
// hovering over user.id
(property) User.id: string
```

## Adding Brands to the Model

Next we'll add the branded types to the `db`. This is a good idea because it ensures the posts and users are properly represented:

```typescript
const db: { users: User[]; posts: Post[] } = {
  users: [
    {
      id: "1" as UserId,
      name: "Miles",
    },
  ],
  posts: [
    {
      id: "1" as PostId,
      title: "Hello world",
      content: "This is my first post",
    },
  ],
};
```

With this change in place, we can't accidentally call a function with the wrong type of ID.

For example, even though inside of `db` both the `UserId` and `PostId` are `"1"`, we get a really helpful error message if we try to call `getUserById(postId)`:

```typescript
const postId = "1" as PostId;

getUserById(postId)

// Error:
Type '"PostId"' is not assignable to type '"UserId"'.
```

## The Inspiration for this Challenge

I ran into this problem really hard when I was building a production application that had lots of different entities with several different ways that you could access those entities by ID.

There was a serializable version of the **ID** as well as a non-serializable version for saving to local storage.

By using branded types we knew that we would have the correct type of ID whether we needed to call `getBySerializableId` or `getByUniqueId`.

Just like in this solution, we were protected from accidentally accessing the wrong one.

Add Branded Types to Functions and  Models

0:00 There are a couple of different solutions here. The main idea is where you put these brands in order to make sure that everything you've got is safe.

0:10 We definitely know that we need to put them on the function getUserById and getPostById. We need to make sure that the thing we're checking here is a UserId and is a PostId down here. This is cool because it means that we can't accidentally pass the wrong thing to the wrong thing here.

0:28 The other interesting thing is this UserId here, which is a string, is being compared to something which is a UserId. You can actually compare these branded types to non-branded types. The question is whether you actually want to put these on the models themselves, whether you want User to be a UserId and Post to be a PostId.

0:52 You notice that this does add a couple of errors down here, which means we would have to add this as a UserId and add this as PostId here.

1:04 This, I think, is probably the correct way to model it, because imagine if you had a Post here and you wanted it to have a UserId, then you would probably want to represent this as a UserId itself, so you'd have to add it down here, UserId 1 as UserId.

1:23 I actually ran into this really hard when I was building a production application that had lots of different entities with several different ways that you could access those entities by ID.

1:34 There was a serializable version of the ID and a non-serializable version of the ID, because we were saving it to local storage but still had to have some sort of sense of uniqueness when we were not in local storage. Anyway, complicated.

1:47 Having functions like getBySerializableId or getByUniqueId, those were really interesting to have as different branded types, because it meant that you couldn't accidentally access the wrong one.

1:59 Which is why I included this, because it's a really incredibly useful pattern to know, especially if you have complicated data structures that all rely on each other and you don't want to accidentally mess things up.

2:10 Now, of course, if we call it with the wrong thing, then we're going to get this really quite nice error here, so types are branded or incompatible type, PostId is not assignable to type UserId. You get really nice errors off this.

2:22 Again, this is another application of branded types, and this should give you a good sense of what the trade-offs are, because when you have this database here and you're mocking these data, it's going to be quite annoying to have to add all of these as UserIds, as PostIds.

2:38 If you have a system with a lot of mocking, then maybe this isn't for you, but then again, you can just create a function which creates these IDs for you.

2:47 This is a really useful application of brands, for sure, and it's definitely something that I've run into in production before.

Using Branded Types as Entity Id’s

0:00 In this exercise, we have a user and we have a post, both represented in interfaces. We have an ID of string here on both of them. We have a DB here that's representing the shape of the DB.

0:14 We've got some functions here that say getUserByID, ID string, and getPostByID, ID string. What we're trying to do here is we're trying to restrict these functions so that they only get a user with a user ID and a post with a post ID.

0:30 We have a couple of branded types up here that are already being used in the tests. Your job here is to work out where these branded types should go and what you need to do with them in order to achieve this goal. Good luck.

The Advanced Patterns workshop is a primer on several patterns that emerge from TypeScript's primitives. We'll build on the generics and type transformations work we've done so far - extracting methods for architecting them into novel solutions.

Most of these patterns aren't documented by TypeScript - they've been discovered and iterated on by the TypeScript community. Each section focuses on a different pattern via interactive exercises.

**This workshop is not appropriate for beginners.**

## Branded Types

Branded types (sometimes known as nominal types) let you break the rules of TypeScript by 'naming' types. This opens up a _lot_ of possibilities for using the type system to ensure your app's logic is robust.

## Globals

The often-feared global scope is a necessary part of most applications. Whether you're importing a library via CDN that attaches to `window`, or relying on environment variables, you'll need to know how to strongly type the global scope.

## Type Predicates & Assertion Functions

Type predicates and assertion functions give you the power to customize TypeScript's control flow. When used in combination with `if` statements, they can help improve inference and make your code easier to reason about.

## The Builder Pattern

This section builds on the Generics work we did in the previous workshop. We'll use classes and generics to perform ridiculous feats of inference - building up entire data structures in TypeScript without a single type annotation from the user.

## External Libraries

Diving into external libraries is extremely complex. But it's often necessary to debug complicated type errors. Understanding the flow of generics through an external library can be critical to quickly fixing red lines. We'll look at several popular libraries.

## Identity Functions

Sometimes in TypeScript, you just need a function. Some generic inference isn't possible without an identity function. We'll learn when and where to use them, as well as some powerful type helpers to assist their inference.

Intermediate to advanced workshop: Boost app logic, type global scopes, and debug with external libraries.

Advanced Patterns Workshop

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Take your coding skills to the next level with this workshop and learn how to use type predicates, assertion functions, branded types, and more.

Advanced Workshop Welcome 

Branded types allow us to enforce certain logic on the type level so we can write safer code and impose constraints that aren't available in regular TypeScript.

What is a Branded Type?

Branded types can validate raw value data into types that will be correct no matter where they are passed in your application.

Assigning Branded Types to Values

Form Validation with Branded Types

Using type helpers along with branded types provides a more reusable way of marking things as valid or invalid.

Combine Type Helpers with Branded Types

Creating Reusable Validity Checks with Branded Types and Type Helpers

Unit tests are great, but adding branded types provides another way to test validity on the type level.

Using Branded Types to Validate Code Logic

Creating Validation Boundaries with Branded Types

Here you'll learn an interesting property present when combining index signatures and branded types. 

Indexing an Object with Branded Types

Using Index Signatures with Branded Types

Covers three patterns used by the TypeScript community.

Nominal Typing from Basarat's TypeScript Deep Dive

How opaque types in Flow and TypeScript can make your code better, faster, more secure and easier to refactor.

Stronger JavaScript with Opaque Types by Charles Pick

Reference unique symbols in the TypeScript Handbook

unique symbol from the TypeScript Docs

Refresh yourself on type helpers with the Type Helpers section of the Type Transformations workshop.

Type Helpers from Total TypeScripts

Reference for Index Signatures in the TypeScript Handbook

Index Signatures from the TypeScript Docs

Branded Types

Functions in global scope can be accessed across projects. Use them carefully, as globals should be avoided when possible.

Add a Function to the Global Scope

TypeScript's Global Scope

It is possible to add functionality to existing TypeScript globals by taking advantage of declaration merging.

Use Declaration Merging to Add Functionality to the Global Window

Add Functionality to Existing Global Interfaces

Adding types to properties of global interfaces allows for autocompletion across your  project's files, even when they are within namespaces.

Typing process.env in the NodeJS Namespace

Add Types to Properties of Global Namespaced Interfaces

Globals can be used to communicate between files that don't necessarily import or export to each other. 

Solving the Colocation Problem with Globals

Colocating Types for Global Interfaces

A reference for Global Declarations in the TypeScript Handbook

Global Declarations from the TypeScript Docs

A reference for Declaration Merging in the TypeScript Handbook

Declaration Merging from the TypeScript Docs

See where window is declared in TypeScript's definition file for the DOM.

lib.dom.d.ts in the TypeScript Source on GitHub

The TypeScript definition file for the Node.js process object.

process.d.ts from @types/node on GitHub

Globals

Type predicates provide a useful way for ensuring types are what we expect them to be. 

Use a Type Predicate to Filter Types

Filtering with Type Predicates

Assertion functions make sure if types are valid or assignable to other types. They are great for writing clever checks.

Ensure Valid Types with an Assertion Function

Checking Types with Assertion Functions

There is a gotcha to assertion functions that can lead to TypeScript worst error message. Luckily, it's easy to avoid once you know the rule.

Declare Assertion Functions Properly to Avoid Confusing Errors

Avoiding TypeScript's Most Confusing Error 

Generics and type predicates make a powerful combination for getting good inference from TypeScript.

Filtering with Type Predicates and Generics

Combining Type Predicates with Generics

Using brands with type predicates provide an alternative to assertions, casting, and other type adjustments when checking for validity.

Checking for Validity with Brands and Type Predicates

Combining Brands and Type Predicates

Using brands with assertions produces a nice validation API with readable error messages.

Validate Types with Brands and Assertions

Combining Brands with Assertion Functions

Reference Type Predicates in the TypeScript Handbook

Type Predicates from the TypeScript Docs

Reference Assertion Functions in the TypeScript Handbook

Assertion Functions from the TypeScript Docs

Type Predicates and Assertion Functions

TypeScript allows for classes to be used as types or values. They are able to cross the boundary between the runtime world and the type world.

Using Classes in TypeScript

Classes as Types and Values

Learn how to use type predicates in TypeScript classes to improve type safety and streamline your code.

Type predicates can simplify your TypeScript code and make it more maintainable.

Simplifying TypeScript with Type Predicates

Dive into Classes with Type Predicates 

Type predicates and assertion functions can bring amazing inference to classes in TypeScript.

Leverage Assertion Functions for Better Inference in Classes

Assertion Functions and Classes

The builder pattern provides a powerful way to construct APIs that fit nicely with TypeScript.

Class Implementation Following the Builder Pattern

Alex, the creator of the TRPC library, walks through an example of the builder pattern.

TRPC's Creator on the Builder Pattern

The builder pattern can be used to remove unknowns and add type safety and  autocompletion by building upon generics.

Getters and Setters in the Builder Pattern

Create a Type Safe Map with the Builder Pattern

One small change can drastically change the behavior of your code and lose your type safety.

Default Generics in the Builder Pattern

Debugging the Builder Pattern

Combining generics with the builder pattern allows you to create chainable functions that work through dynamic inference of inputs and outputs.

The Power of Generics and the Builder Pattern

Building Chainable Middleware with the Builder Pattern

Colin, the creator of Zod, presents examples of subclassing in the library.

Subclassing in Zod

Build high-performance, scalable, and easy-to-use APIs for your applications.

TRPC's Documentation

Classes

Orta Therox, a former member of the core TypeScript team,  discusses how types that you don't define can make their way into your application code.

Where Do External Types Come From?

With some clever type transformations it's possible to extract and extend types from an external library that you don't control.

Retrieve Function Parameters from an External Library

Extract Types to Extend an External Library

Navigating Lodash's Type Definitions

It's important to use proper type arguments and generics when using library functions. Let's practice type definitions to determine what to use and their order.

Passing Type Arguments with Lodash

Finding Proper Type Arguments and Generics with Lodash

The Express types from Definitely Typed ensure that the REST APIs you build are generic and type safe.

Navigating Express's Type Definitions

By making a request function generic, we can effectively handle the query params.

Make an Express Request Function Generic

Add Query Params to an Express Request

Zod is a TypeScript library created with the goal of validating data types. Let's read through its type definitions to better understand the flow of generics.

Browsing Zod's Types

Using Zod allows you to create functions that are both runtime and type safe. This lets you accept different types of input without the need for casting.

Infer Runtime Arguments from a Zod Schema

Create a Runtime and Type Safe Function with Generics and Zod

Sometimes you need to add or override types from an external library. This can be done by using a declaration file.

Create a Declarations File to Override Types

Override External Library Types

The Lodash common module in the DefinitelyTyped repository.

Lodash Types from Definitely Typed on GitHub

See how types are defined for the popular library Express in the DefinitelyTyped project. 

Express Types from Definitely Typed on GitHub

See how the types for Arrays are defined in TypeScript's own source code.

Array from TypeScript's Types on GitHub

Build a deeper expertise with Zod in this free tutorial here on Total TypeScript.

Zod Tutorial on Total TypeScript

See how the Zod library defines its own types.

Zod's Types on GitHub

External Libraries

as const asserts type, but isn't always available. Identity functions with F.Narrow from ts-toolbelt improve inference in these cases.





Using const type parameters For Better Inference

Identity Functions as an Alternative to the `as const`

Constraining and Narrowing an Identity Function

Add Constraints to an Identity Function

Sometimes TypeScript infers when we don't want it to. The `NoInfer` type helps us avoid this problem.

Fix Inference Issues with the NoInfer Type

Specifying Where Inference Should Not Happen

Avoid Duplicate Code in an Identity Function with Generics

Find the Generic Flow of an Identity Function

Reverse mapped types allow changing inference in identity functions to infer from input, rather than output. Mind-bending, but cool!





Inference Inception in an Identity Function

Reverse Mapped Types

ts-toolbelt offers advanced utility types & functions for TypeScript that aren't available in the standard library, helping to write more type-safe code.








ts-toolbelt GitHub Repository

The Narrow utility type from ts-toolbelt can be helpful for narrowing union types in TypeScript, leading to more precise type checking.





F.Narrow from ts-toolbelt on GitHub

ts-toolbelt's NoInfer type prevents unwanted inference, leading to more precise and flexible type definitions in TypeScript.








F.NoInfer from ts-toolbelt on GitHub

TypeScript 5.0's const type parameters can be helpful for enforcing constant values in type definitions, leading to more reliable code.





Microsoft's announcement for TypeScript 5.0 Beta

Mapping over a union to create an object using TypeScript's mapped types can be helpful for generating complex types with ease and flexibility.





The Mapped Types Module of the Type Transformations Workshop

Identity Functions

Add Objects to the Global Scope Dynamically

Merge Dynamic Objects with Global Objects

Practice typing a TypeScript wrapper function for a fruit array that returns a fruit object based on name. Use generics and ts-toolbelt

Narrowing with Arrays and Generics

Narrowing with an Array

Type-Safe Request Handlers with Zod and Express

Create a Type-Safe Request Handler with Zod and Express

Dynamic Reducer with Generic Types

Building a Dynamic Reducer

 Explore React typings to add a custom element to JSX.IntrinsicElements, defining required props and children, and utilizing HTML props.

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Using Branded Types as Entity Id’s

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